Cognitive Learning free essay sample

Not all cases of learning can easily be captured by classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Learning would be extremely inefficient if we had to rely completely on conditioning for all our learning. Human beings can learn efficiently by observation, taking instruction, and imitating the behavior of others. Cognitive learning is a powerful mechanism that provides the means of knowledge, and goes well beyond simple imitation of others. Conditioning can never explain what you are learning from reading our web-site. This learning illustrates the importance of cognitive learning. Cognitive learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skill by mental or cognitive processes — ;the procedures we have for manipulating information in our heads. Cognitive processes include creating mental representations of physical objects and events, and other forms of information processing. How do we learn cognitive? In cognitive learning, the individual learns by listening, watching, touching, reading, or experiencing and then processing and remembering the information. Cognitive learning might seem to be passive learning, because there is no motor movement. However, the learner is quite active, in a cognitive way, in processing and remembering newly incoming information. Cognitive learning enables us to create and transmit a complex culture that includes symbols, values, beliefs and norms. Because cognitive activity is involved in many aspects of human behavior, it might seem that cognitive learning only takes place in human beings. However, many different species of animals are capable of observational learning. For example, a monkey in the zoo, sometimes imitates human visitors or other monkeys. Nevertheless, most information about cognitive learning is obtained from studies on human beings. Cognitive skills: Cognitive skills refer to the abilities to gain meaning and knowledge from experience and information. Cognition is more then just learning information, its the ability to think about new information, process and speak about it and apply it to other, previously acquired information. As children mature, they develop the ability to think on higher levels, processing information more skillfully and making connections to other information more easily. What are cognitive skills? The following describes key cognitive skills that are critical for learning. Attention Skills: A students ability to attend to incoming information can be observed, broken down into a variety of sub-skills, and improved through properly coordinated training. We train and strengthen the three primary types of attention: Sustained Attention: The ability to remain focused and on task, and the amount of time we can focus. Selective Attention: The ability to remain focused and on task while being subjected to related and unrelated sensory input (distractions). Divided Attention: The ability to remember information while performing a mental operation and attending to two things at once (multi-tasking). Memory: The ability to store and recall information: Long-Term Memory: The ability to recall information that was stored in the past. Long-term memory is critical for spelling, recalling facts on tests, and comprehension. Weak long-term memory skills create symptoms like forgetting names and phone numbers, and doing poorly on unit tests. Short-Term / Working Memory: The ability to apprehend and hold information in immediate awareness while simultaneously performing a mental operation. Students with short-term memory problems may need to look several times at something before copying, have problems following multi-step instructions, or need to have information repeated often. Logic and Reasoning: The ability to reason, form concepts, and solve problems using unfamiliar information or novel procedures. Deductive reasoning extends this problem-solving ability to draw conclusions and come up with solutions by analyzing the relationships between given conditions. Students with underdeveloped logic and reasoning skills will generally struggle with word math problems and other abstract learning challenges. Symptoms of skill weaknesses in this area show up as questions like, I dont get this, I need help this is so hard, or What should I do first? Auditory Processing: The ability to analyze, blend, and segment sounds. Auditory processing is a crucial underlying skill for reading and spelling success, and is the number one skill needed for learning to read. Weakness in any of the auditory processing skills will greatly hinder learning to read, reading fluency, and comprehension. Students with auditory processing weakness also typically lose motivation to read. Visual Processing: The ability to perceive, analyze, and think in visual images. This includes visualization, which is the ability to create a picture in your mind of words or concepts. Students who have problems with visual processing may have difficulty following instructions, reading maps, doing word math problems, and comprehending. Processing Speed: The ability to perform simple or complex cognitive tasks quickly. This skill also measures the ability of the brain to work quickly and accurately while ignoring distracting stimuli. Slow processing speed makes every task more difficult. Very often, slow processing is one root of ADHD-type behaviors. Symptoms of weaknesses here include homework taking a long time, always being the last one to get his or her shoes on, or being slow at completing even simple tasks. Cognitive/learning styles. Cognitive styles and learning styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes information or the different ways in which children and adults think and learn. Each of us develops a preferred and consistent set of behaviors or approaches to learning. Unlike theories of individual differences in abilities (e. g. , Gardner), which describe peak performance, learning styles describe a person’s typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem solving. Furthermore, styles are usually considered to be bipolar dimensions, whereas abilities are unipolar (i. e. , ranging from zero to a maximum value). Having more of an ability is usually considered beneficial, while having a particular cognitive style simply denotes a tendency to behave in a certain manner. Cognitive style is usually referred to as a personality dimension that influences attitudes, values and social interaction. To further our understanding of the learning process, Litzinger and Osif (1993) broke it down into several processes: Cognition – How one acquires knowledge. Conceptualization – How one processes information. There are those who are always looking for connections among unrelated events. For others, each event triggers a multitude of new ideas. Affective – People’s motivation, decision-making styles, values and emotional preferences will also help to define their learning styles. Learning Style Importance: Low satisfaction or poor performance in a course or particular activity may be misinterpreted as lack of knowledge or ability, when it is actually difficulty with a particular style of learning. Individual learning preferences, although clearly not related to aptitude, are significantly related to personal motivation and performance. Educators with an understanding of their students’ learning styles are better able to appropriately adapt their teaching methods. Educators who introduce a variety of appropriate teaching methods into their classes are more likely to motivate and engage students in learning. Students who learn about their own style become better learners, achieve higher grades, become more motivated and have more positive attitudes about their studies, have greater self-confidence and have more skill in applying their knowledge in courses. Information about learning styles can help educators become more sensitive to the diversity of students. Information about learning styles can serve as a guide to the design of learning experiences that either match, or mismatch, students’ styles, depending upon whether the educator’s purpose is efficiency of students’ learning or the development of skills with a style of learning in which students can improve. Information about learning styles can assist in working with at risk students, since they have a greater chance of dropping out of school or engaging in self-destructive behavior. Kinds of Learning Styles: Field Independence VS. Field Dependence A number of cognitive styles have been identified and studied over the years. Field independence versus field dependence is one of the most widely known styles. It refers to a tendency to approach the environment in a particular, as opposed to a global manner. At a perceptual level, field independent personalities are able to distinguish figures as discrete from their backgrounds. Field dependent individuals experience events in an undifferentiated way, and have a greater social orientation relative to field independent personalities. Several studies have identified a number of major connections between this cognitive style and learning. For example, field independent individuals are likely to learn more effectively under conditions of intrinsic motivation (e. g. , self-study) and are less influenced by social reinforcement. Scanning This cognitive style focuses on differences in the extent and intensity of attention resulting in variations in the vividness of experience and the span of awareness. Leveling VS. Sharpening These cognitive styles emphasize individual variations in remembering that pertain to the distinctiveness of memories (i. e. , sharpening) and the tendency to merge similar events (i. e. , leveling). Reflection VS. Impulsivity This style has to do with individual consistencies in the speed and adequacy with which alternative hypotheses are formed and responses made. Conceptual Differentiation This style focuses on differences in the tendency to categorize perceived similarities among stimuli, in terms of separate concepts or dimensions. David Kolb’s Theory of Learning Styles Kolb proposes a theory of experiential learning that involves the following four principle stages that can be seen as a continuum running from concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC) and active experimentation (AE). Under Kolb’s theory, the CE/AC and AE/RO dimensions are polar opposites, as far as learning styles are concerned. Kolb’s theory is based on the view that learning is a series of experiences with cognitive additions, rather than as a series of pure cognitive processes. Kolb’s theory sets forth that learning is a circular process in which concrete experience (CE) is followed by reflection and observation (RO), which in turn leads to the formulation of abstract concepts and generalization (AC), the implications of which are tested in new situations through active experimentation (AE). A description of Kolb’s learning styles are provided below, as well as suggested instructional strategies for teaching to each style: While Kolb’s theory describes an integrated process in which all stages of the continuum have to be completed over time, it also contends that people are rarely fully effective in all stages. Usually people come to prefer, and rely on, one style above the others. IRS teams should be familiar with and able to apply information on student’s learning styles when creating instructional materials, strategies and techniques for identified problems. Kolb produced variants of his main stages, and by combining different parts of the four stages identified four main styles of learners: divergers, assimilators, convergers and accommodators, depending upon their position on the two opposite dimensions (i. e. , CE/AE, AE/RO). For example, an accommodator prefers concrete experiences and active experimentation (AE, CE). Learning Styles and the 4MAT System: A Cycle of Learning The 4MAT system for creating lesson plans for teaching to learning styles with right/left mode techniques, developed by Bernice McCarthy, is based on a number of premises: First, different individuals perceive and process experience in different and preferred ways, which comprise individuals’ unique learning styles. Essential to quality learning is an awareness in learners of their own preferred mode, becoming comfortable with their own ways of learning, and being helped to develop a learning repertoire, which is developed through experience with alternative modes. The fact that students may have preferred and most comfortable modes does not mean they can not function effectively in others. In fact, students who have the flexibility to move easily from one mode to another to accommodate the requirements of a situation are at a definite advantage over those who limit themselves to only one style of thinking and learning. Descriptions of the four learning styles identified by McCarthy follow: McCarthy argues that all styles should be addressed within the curriculum, so that more than one type of student may be permitted to both â€Å"shine† and â€Å"stretch. † That is, every lesson should contain something for everyone, so each student not only finds their mode of greatest comfort, but also is challenged to adapt less comfortable, but equally valuable modes. The instructional sequence suggested by McCarthy teaches to the four styles using both right- and left-brain processing techniques. This integration of styles and processing modes ensures that we are educating the â€Å"whole brain† (i. e. , engaging both hemispheres of the brain). Neurolinguistics/Psycholinguistics Consideration of one aspect of neurolinguistics can also assist in assessing students’ and educators’ learning styles. Specifically, our tendencies toward the use of visual, auditory or kinesthetic/tactile dimensions in language and thought are strong indicators of predominant learning style. The chart below, adapted from Accelerated Learning, by Colin Rose, provides an example of how language and other cognitive processes can illuminate ones’ primary leaning style. By reading the text in the left column, and answering the questions in the successive three columns on how you respond to each situation, you can determine your learning style. Your answers may fall into all three columns, but one column will likely contain the most answers, which indicates your main learning style. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Another construct that can be useful in determining one’s learning style is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), developed by Katharine C. Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers, which sets forth four style dimensions. The MBTI instrument provides data on four sets of preferences, resulting in sixteen learning styles, or types. A type is the combination of an individual’s four preferences (e. g. , ESTJ or extraverted-sensing-thinkingjudger). The four dimensions are described below, along with ideas for teaching to each polarity of the four dimensions. The Myers-Briggs inventory can be a very useful tool for helping IRS team members understand each other’s styles of learning and working. The use of personal awareness instruments, such as Myers-Briggs, are excellent resources to use for the maintenance of even fully-functioning teams, as discussed in the section of this manual titled â€Å"Team Wellness/Maintenance. †